Josephine Baker Aided the French and Received Medal of Honor

Continuing with the theme of Women's History Month, what better person to discuss than Josephine Baker? She was an international icon who rose from poverty in St. Louis, Missouri to the lavish lifestyle of Paris, France. Baker had a slew of nicknames: "Creole Goddess,"  "Black Venus" and "Black Pearl." She was renown for her beauty and her innovative and flamboyant dances. According to Biography.com, Baker had a pet cheetah and adopted 12 children from various ethnicities called the "Rainbow Tribe." But do we know the story behind Baker providing intelligence to the Allies during World War II? Josephine Baker received a Medal of Honor for aiding the French Resistance during WWII. 

Josephine's rags to riches story was very similar to many Negro entertainers in the early 1900s. She was born Freda Josephine McDonald in 1906. Baker worked at an early age as a domestic and waitress to help her impoverished family. She married at age thirteen but did not remain in the union for long. (Baker later wed several more times) Young Baker then started dancing professionally. Considered too dark and skinny in America, the New York Times once referred to her as "The Negro Wench." (Source: The Official Josephine Baker Site)

Josephine Baker during WWII
Source: Biography.com

Undeterred, Josephine Baker left the United States for Paris where she became a huge sensation in the 1920s. Baker was praised for her looks; Ammomag.com describes women emulating Baker's cropped do, tanned skin, and fashion. Josephine Baker was the toast of the town and her films solidified her status. She also took voice lessons and evolved into a captivating singer. (huffingtonpost)

 She became the highest grossing entertainer in Europe according to Biography.com. Baker infatuated legions of fans with her famous  "Banana Dance," "Shadow Dance" and the "Original Charleston."  A long line of modern day performers have cited Baker as a major influence. Baker incorporated comedy, visual appeal and high energy in her scene stealing performances.

Josephine Baker
Source: mentalfloss.com

Furthermore, Pablo Picasso, Ernest Hemingway, Langston Hughes, and F. Scott Fitzgerald greatly admired the "Black Venus."** She embodied the Jazz Age and the accompanying Art Deco movement. Baker attempted to make a return to America in the late 30s with the show Ziegfeld Follies but faced audience rejection. She renounced her American citizenship and became a French citizen in 1937. By this time Baker was among the top photographed female stars. France embraced her. (huffingtonpost)



From the Official Josephine Baker site:

Admirers bestowed a plethora of gifts, including diamonds and cars, and she received approximately 1,500 marriage proposals.

Which is why Josephine Baker was the perfect candidate to smuggle information for the French Resistance during World War II. 




The Vichy Government and The French Resistance



Via historylearning.com.uk

The surrender of France in June 1940, was a major blow to many French people in terms of their pride. Many believed that the government had let the people down. The creation of a Nazi-approved Vichy government, primarily in the centre and south of the country, was, in the minds of many, further proof that politicians had let down France. The resistance movement developed to provide the Allies with intelligence, attack the Germans when possible and to assist the escape of Allied airmen.

Additionally:

In the immediate aftermath of the June 1940 surrender, France went into a period of shock. The public had been assured that the French army, along with the Maginot Line, was more than strong enough to resist a German attack. The speed and severity of Blitzkrieg had shocked the French people. The non-occupied region of France, known as Vichy France, was set up by the Germans and governed by Marshall Pétain. 

Meanwhile, French President Charles de Gaulle on June 18th, 1940 told the French people from London to keep fighting the Germans. The Vichy government, collaborated with the Germans and internal conflict began.

.
  Baker had a castle in Southern France. She provided housing for Resistance members. 
Source: jewishvirtualibrary.org

Josephine Baker, Free France Spy


Prior to the surrender of France to the Germans in 1940, Baker was made an "honorary correspondent" by a French official. Baker gathered information on German troops from various embassy and ministry personnel at parties. Baker passed the intel on to the French government. Her femme fatale persona allowed her access to confidential military information.(biography.com)


Baker housed French Resistance friends at her Southern France castle and procured travel visas. She traveled throughout neutral Europe and South America collecting information about German troop movement, airfields and harbors. As a spy, once again she obtained some of the information by her "beguiling smile" and sensuous charm. The intelligence would then be written on invisible ink on Josephine's sheet music. On some occasions the info would be pinned on her underwear. An entertainer of Baker's cache would not be subject to a strip search. (biography.com)


Baker's other WWII activities included a stint as a sub-lieutenant for the Women's Auxiliary Air Force. She also provided performances for French troops free of charge, boosting their morale. For her brave and commendable efforts Baker was the first American-born woman to be awarded the Croix de Guerre and the Rosette de la Résistance and to be made a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor. (womenwhochangedamerica.org)

Image via: queensofvintage.com
Josephine Baker with her pet cheetah

American Civil Rights Proponent 

Josephine Baker figured prominently in the American Civil Rights Movement. She was invited to speak during the 1963 March On Washington* and was one of the few women that spoke before thousands of protesters. After the assignation of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. his wife Coretta selected Baker to be the face of the movement but she declined. 

Baker refused to perform in front of segregated audiences and challenged the social mores of the day, winning accolades from the NAACP. Her actions resulted in death threats from the Klu Klux Klan but she remained steadfast with her convictions.

One of the most famous entertainers of the twentieth century pushed the envelope with her stage persona and private life. Her songs are timeless standards covered by many. The "Black Pearl" reaped the benefits of her amazing popularity and enjoyed a posh lifestyle. 

Josephine Baker's status allowed her to be the perfect spy for the French Resistance in WWII. Additionally, she was a pivotal player during the American Civil Rights Movement. Baker lived life on her terms and did not let rejection in the United States limit her. Josephine Baker died in 1975 of a cerebral hemorrhage.  Baker was buried with military honors and over 20,000 people attended her funeral. (biography.com)


What entertainer today does Baker remind you of? Can you think of anyone else that was involved in military and social causes?


Don't forget to share this post!

Josephine Baker was the only woman who spoke at the March on Washington in 1963.
 She is pictured with Lena Horne, another activist entertainer.
image via: pinterest.com

                                                       






Sources:
Ammomag.com Biography.com
Encyclopedia Brittanica
*historychicks.com-March on Washington Speech
historylearning.com.uk
huffingtonpost.com
Official Site of Josephine Baker
**wikipedia.com
womenwhochangedamerica.org






*Vichy-  France was divided into two zones. Petain set up his government in the unoccupied zone at the spa town of Vichy. The large number of hotels housed all the ministries.

Army's Red Ball Express: Unsung Soldiers

I wrote extensively about the Port Chicago Naval Magazine Explosion and the Port Chicago Mutiny, involving the mostly African American sailors who loaded munitions bound for the Pacific Theater. The explosion was the worst homeland disaster of World War II and the Port Chicago Mutiny was the largest naval mutiny at the time. July 14, 2014 is the 70th anniversary of the explosion; ceremonies will pay respect to the fallen seaman and civilians. Here is another story of unsung African American soldiers...


The European Theater was the location of the United States Army's Red Ball Express, where again, African American soldiers comprise the majority of the personnel. Allied troops in Europe desperately needed ammunition. But in this case the ammunition was transported strictly by land; rations, medical supplies, and fuel also needed to be rapidly distributed.

The Operation was given the code name Red Ball Express. Red Ball Express was a truck convoy transportation system that traveled across Northern France. The supply line was essential after the largest amphibious landing in military history. Red Ball Express was created on August 25, 1944 in Normandy, France. Its name was borrowed from an old fashioned term for fast freight trains that contained perishable food.

Did you know that 75% of its drivers were African American?* They were members of the Army's Quartermasters Corps. Again, the belief system at this time maintained that Blacks did not have the guts necessary for being a soldier of combat. African American males were considered "intellectually inferior."As a result, the ranks of World War II military, with notable exceptions, swelled with Blacks in support positions.

However, in order to survive the Red Ball Express supply line, you had to have guts.


Army's Red Ball Express:  Unsung Soldiers

Amazon.com

If you originally thought that Red Ball Express drivers were affable Negros, mindlessly shuttling around a military base, you are incorrect. Now some may think that being a driver in the war is not glorious, but these drivers took their work seriously. Travel by motor vehicles was necessary as the French railroad system was completely destroyed. This was done to thwart the Germans. The operation commenced shortly after the D Day invasion. D Day, or the Normandy Invasion, marked a turning point in World War II. (D Day warrants separate, future posts due to the enormity and vast scope of this historical invasion)


I asked my father about the Red Ball Express and he had a great deal of respect in his voice. He said that they had a dangerous job because they had to avoid the Wehrmacht, the German military. "You remember that?," I asked. "Yeah, he bragged, "I know a lot about the war," was his reply.

He did not personally know any drivers but I explained that the father of the late singer Whitney Houston was a Red Ball Express Driver. According to US Army Transportation Museum.com, John Huston stated:

“We ran [the trucks] through summer, fall and winter, through snow, ice and rain.  Guys were falling asleep all the time.  You couldn’t get enough rest.”

Also, in viewing the aftermath of war torn French towns, Houston recalled:

"Each town was a monument to hell itself."

John Rockwell (l) and John R. Huston
Source: US Army Transportation Museum

 Driving for extended periods of times, the men faced sleep deprivation yet they had to stay alert. Veteran James Rookard recalled drivers and relief drivers learning to switch positions while the vehicles were in motion. German bombs and gunfire attacks were always a possibility on those trecherous roads. The roads had signs, traffic signals and military police directing traffic. At nighttime, truck headlights had special "cat eye covers", in order to diminish detection by the German Army. If a truck was no longer working, the truck had to be abandoned and left on the side of the road. Mobile pit crews would come along and repair the trucks (Source: blog.cleveland.com)

 Over fifteen hundred Army vehicles were repaired each day (Source: DOT).   Red Ball Express soldiers had to deal with debris in the road from shrapnel. They also had to deal with inclement weather, starving people begging for food, dead bodies, and bombs, remembered James Rookard.  Drivers obviously had to persevere under time constraints and the constant fear of being attacked. There was also added pressure to succeed because news reporters covered their stories back home.

The entire Red Ball Express operation was a massive initiative launched by General George S. Patton, Jr.; it lasted 82 Days according to Department of Defense. What good is having strategic, tactical plans towards the Allied victory if your troops are unequipped?  This particular operation provided forward momentum for the Allied troops after the D Day invasion.

From DOT.gov:

The plan was to gather nonessential trucks from throughout the European Theater. Although General Eisenhower had wanted tractor-trailers for the Red Ball Express, the primary vehicle was the versatile 2½ ton six-wheel-drive General Motors truck nicknamed the "Jimmy" and "deuce-and-a-half." They would operate 24 hours a day on two designated two-lane, one-way roads, reserved almost exclusively for the trucks, totaling around 600 miles at the peak of service. The northern route was closed to all traffic except convoys delivering supplies, while the southern route was closed to all but returning trucks.

Additionally:

The Red Ball Express began operating on August 25, 1944, with 67 truck companies, 3,358 trucks, mostly Jimmies, carrying 4,482 tons of supplies on a 125-mile run from Cherbourg to the forward logistics base at Chartres. Just 4 days later, the Red Ball Express included 132 truck companies and 5,958 vehicles. [Victory , p. 49]

Source:defense.gov

In closing, Red Ball Express was a major convoy system that supplied Allied soldiers fighting on the French front line. It was a top secret plan that was launched after D Day. The mostly Black drivers, mechanics, minesweepers and others of the Red Ball Express ultimately helped the Allies gain victory in World War II. Please share the incredible story of the Army's Red Ball Express and its Unsung Soldiers.


Some readers may say, "I see no color when fighting along my comrades." This may be true. But the question is, is it now possible to represent color when describing American military history, instead of omitting groups? When percentages are as high as 75%, such as the Red Ball Express' African American drivers, can a more accurate representation be granted? What do you think?



*US Department of Defense

Sources:
defense.gov
blog.cleveland.com
fhwa.dot.gov
history.net
pbs.org
Personal Stories: Red Ball Express





Notes: Hollywood had its own version of the Red Ball Express, simply named Red Ball Express. The titular film was released in 1952 and featured a predominately White cast. A young pre-Academy Award winning Sidney Portier appeared in this movie. The script had some rewrites after issues raised by the Black press.
CBS had a TV show called Roll Out in 1973-74. Roll Out aired for only twelve episodes, and was produced by the same team as M.A.S.H. There was also a 1994 US Postage Stamp dedicated to the Red Ball Express. ( Source: DOT)
See also: powerlines/robert k chester

The Mitsubishi Zero and Early Japanese Victories in World War II

In the early stages of World War II the Imperial Japanese Navy had what was considered the best naval aviation in the world. Their Mitsubishi "Zero" aircraft gave them a superior advantage against Allied nations throughout the Pacific Theater.  From Combinedfleet.com:

It is not surprising, then, that Japanese aviators scored victory after stunning victory during the first six months of the war, from the attack on Pearl Harbor, through the sinking of the British men of war Prince of Wales and Repulse, to the fearsome raids on Northern Australia and IJN's* rampage throughout the Indian Ocean in April 1942. 

Source: combined fleet.com

The Mitsubishi Company was founded in 1873 by Iwasaki Yatoro. It was a family owned business and encompassed the areas of real estate, merchant shipping, iron and steel, etc. During World War I, the Mitsubishi branched into the manufacturing of aircraft, in conjunction with design / engineering specialists from Germany, France and Britain. These joint ventures allowed the Japanese to further perfect their aviation expertise.

However, at the end of World War I, as other countries scaled back their military spending, the Japanese increased production of their planes in the 1920s. Around this time the Navy constructed its first aircraft carriers; the United States had their own as well. Japanese Naval leader Isoroku Yamamoto felt the need to have "long range bombers that could strike Yankee warships."

The following are featured Mitsubishi World War II era Aircraft:

• Nell (1936)- Struck Chinese targets 1,250 miles away in the Second Sino-Japanese War
• Betty (1939)- Could fly over 2,00 miles without refueling;  
• Zero (1939)- Extremely lightweight and nimble. Over 10,000 were built. 

 Here are the specifications on the Mitsubishi Zero:

• 332 MPH
• range of 1,930 miles
• 29 feet and nine inches long
• wingspan of 39 feet 

The Zero had a crew of one, and was armed with machine guns and bombs. It utilized lightweight aluminum for its maneuverability. Unfortunately, this top secret aluminum lacked armor to protect the pilots, and did not have self-sealing fuel tanks. Allied pilots later learned to exploit this weakness by double teaming Zero planes in dogfights or striking during the "dive" or "climb".

Moreover, many of the military decisions of World War II came from the leader of Japan, General Hideki Tojo. Tojo was the Prime Minister of Japan from (October 1941- July 1944). He was an aggressive Army General who became Minister of War in July 1941 and Prime Minister in October 1941.

According to howstuffworks.com, the delicate manners of Japanese diplomats dispatched to Washington during the period before the Pearl Harbor attack were indeed very deceptive. There was also a perception that the Mitsubishi aircraft were a poor imitation of Western aviation. The Japanese military prior to Pearl Harbor was not considered a formidable opponent. Yet all those assumptions quickly changed the morning of December 7, 1941. The Allies had no aircraft match until 1943.


And when I asked my Dad about enemy planes in the Pacific, some seventy years later, he just didn't say planes, but automatically included the name "Mitsubishi."

Source: www.historynavymil.com

*IJN: Imperial Japanese Navy

http://www.pilotfriend.com/acft_manu/Mitsubishi.htm
http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/militaryaircraft/p/a6mzero.htm

How The Negro Press Demanded Answers On The "Lost Battalion"

Upon finishing boot camp at Montford Point, Camp LeJeune, North Carolina, my father was very excited.  As a member of the 51st Defense Battalion, this unit had to prove that they were capable soldiers in combat. They would reverse the findings of the military report that cited that Negros were incompetent in battle. It was thirty long years since the 92nd Division's performance during World War I (1914-1918) that unfairly influenced military policy. Sentiments and beliefs systems were slowly starting to change for World War II.

Dad took a train from North Carolina to San Diego, California via the southern route of the United States. The year was 1943. San Diego, CA was the location of the Marines Corps military base. Of course, his battalion traveled Jim Crow style, which meant uniformed men of color in segregated train cars located at the rear of the train. Smoke and dust permeated the air of the rear train car; this was also where coal was placed into the engine.

Dad recounted how they stopped every four hours to exercise while on route to San Diego. Lunch was brought outside, because the colored men were not permitted to eat inside railroad dining cars. The white officers of the 51st Battalion, however ate inside the dining cars. Captured German prisoners of war traveled with better amenities and treatment than the Montford Point Marines. Meanwhile, the Colored enlisted men socialized with each other and developed a camaraderie. I will write more on the preferential treatment that Axis POWs received over African Americans in the future.

Source:123rf.com
Vintage Map of San Diego

When dad arrived in San Diego, CA, the 51st Defense Battalion were not immediately deployed. The military leaders were not exactly sure what to do with the men. Additionally, Dad had no idea where in the Pacific or when he was going to be shipped out during World War II. World War II contained two theatres of war: The Pacific and The European.

 The Allies consisted of the following countries: France, Britain, United States, and the Soviet Union. Allied countries were opposed by The Axis Powers. The Axis Powers were a military and political alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan. The Axis powers desired dominance in their respective area of Europe, Mediterranean and the Pacific. They promised not to intervene in each other's objectives and to stop the spread of Communism. Minor Axis countries were Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Croatia and Slovakia. Collaborators for the Axis Powers were Vichy France, and Neutral but aiding the Axis was Spain. Italy ended up changing alliances.*

Source: www.regentsprep.org

Source:www.slideshare.net

 Of course, Americans at this time despised the Japanese for their attack at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in the early morning hours of December 1941.
Headlines of this day were not very flattering and used derogatory terms. 

The leader of Nazi Germany was Adolph Hitler, who sanctioned hatred towards Jews, Catholics, Blacks, Jehovah Witnesses, etc. German propaganda at the time sanctioned the ideal of the "Master" Aryan Race which consisted of blond, blue eyed prototypes. Aryans were supposedly superior to all races and ethnicities. Adolph Hitler convinced the majority of his German people that the "Final Solution" would be in the best interests of the German Empire. "The Final Solution" was the horrific extermination of all Jews who Hitler believed to be the enemy.  Countries were invaded by the Axis Powers all around the world. So unsurprisingly, the 51st Defense Battalion were ready to go into battle against the Axis powers.

Montford Point Marines were given extensive praise during training. Dad still remembers seeing Sgt. Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson (1905-1972) and vividly describes the patches for service that decorated his uniform. "Hashmark" Johnson was so named because he served with honor in the US Army, Navy AND Marines. Johnson was one of the first Black Marines and a drill instructor.  Obviously he was a formidable man with a strong presence. Dad always speaks about Hashmark Johnson with awe in his voice.

Source: www.montfordpointmarines.com
Sgt Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson

"Man, we partied so hard,"  Dad exclaimed about his early days in San Diego.  "We went down to Tijuana, Mexico because it was so close to San Diego over the border. There were 35 cent tequilas, and we were having a good old time! Until the Pittsburgh Courier wrote an article asking about the whereabouts of the "Lost Battalion". The Pittsburgh Courier was a preeminent Negro newspaper that had a large readership across America. All of Black America was watching, and the story made big news during 1943.

Source: Blackusa.com

The story of the  "Lost Battalion" was important in many ways. Negro Athlete Jesse Owens triumphantly took home four gold medals in track events at the 1936 Berlin Summer Olympics in Hitler's Germany.  Similarly, the 51st Defense Battalion represented an important chapter in American History. The Negro were marginalized within American society through institutionalized racism. Black combat soldiers were ready to prevail against discrimination whether stateside, or anywhere in the world. The Pittsburgh Courier raised questions and demanded answers. Where was the 51st Defense Battalion and why were they missing in action?

Source: www.biography.com
Jesse Owens 

51st Defense Battalion member Clifford Primus' party days would be soon coming to an end.

*Source: www.ushmm.org

A World War I Primer

I had previously discussed the fact that the United States entered World War II after the surprise morning attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.  But it is also imperative to discuss World War I. The first World War was brought on by the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo, Bosnia, on June 28, 1914. The political unrest ushered in a new era of fighting wars:   The introduction of chemical gas, trench warfare, machine guns and tanks. World War (also known as the Great War) was aptly named because of the unparalleled amount of casualties and destruction involving many nations. World War I included the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, vs the Allies. The Allies consisted of Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy and Japan, and later the United States of America. (Source: www.history.com)

Incidentally, African American Garret Morgan invented the gas mask 1914. His gas mask was originally used to rescue trapped men in an underground tunnel. Morgan's gas mask was later refined for use against chemical warfare in WWI. He was also the inventor of the traffic light; because of this brilliant man millions of people owe their lives. (Source: inventors.about.com.)

Source: www.paterson. k-12.nj.us

The concept of the tank was developed in 1914 by the British. The tank was needed to cross enemy lines and trenches. A British Army colonel named Ernest Swinton and William Henkey went to then British Navy minister Winston Churchill. Churchill championed the idea of developing a "land boat". The rest, as they say, is history. In September of 1915, the first tank came into being, albeit a clumsy one. Here is a video of the tank, called "Little Willie", below:

What caused the United States to become involved in WWI? According to www.historylearningsite.co.uk:

America entered World War One on April 6th, 1917. Up to that date, America had tried to keep out of World War One - though she had traded with nations involved in the war- but unrestricted submarine warfare, introduced by the Germans on January 9th, 1917, was the primary issue that caused Woodrow Wilson to ask Congress to declare war on Germany on April 2nd.  Four days later, America joined World War One on the sides of the Allies.

 The Ottoman Empire included Turkey and was once the world's greatest independent Islamic power.
Source: nationalarchives.gov.uk

Unrestricted submarine warfare was the use of sinking merchant and passenger ships, vessels that included American passengers. President Woodrow Wilson had for the longest promised to keep the United States out of World War I. But the loss of innocent American lives compelled Wilson to act.

Decisive battles led to the brutal defeat of the Central Powers by the Allies in November, 1918. Europe was essentially decimated and countries were left in ruins. No other war in the history of mankind at the time had caused such rampant destruction. It has been estimated that over nine million lives were lost and twenty one million soldiers and civilians were injured as a result of this war from both sides.  ( Source: history.com)

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.  This was an extensive document and was primarily negotiated by the Big Three: Woodrow Wilson of America, David Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France. George and Clemenceau wanted Germany punished so that another war of its magnitude would never happen again. Woodrow Wilson of America "could not understand how an advanced civilization could have reduced itself so that it had created so much devastation." America opted for non-intervention policies.

The Treaty of Versailles signed in 1918 determined post-war borders from Europe to the Middle East, established the League of Nations as an international peace organization and punished Germany for its aggression with reparations and the loss of territory. Tragically the instability caused by World War I would help make possible the rise of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. -History.com

Also around this time The Russia Revolution had occurred. The Russian Revolution was the overthrow of imperial tsar rule in Russia and led to the creation of the Soviet Union under the Communist Party. British leader David Lloyd George had concerns of Communism* spreading throughout Europe in the future when signing the Treaty of Versailles. Furthermore, The Spanish Flu left over twenty five million people dead. Such was the dire background of World War I.




*Communism- a type of government that relies on collectivization of labor and good to equal out the (socio-economic) classes. (obtained from www.howstuffworks.com/communism.html)