White Montford Point Marines Officers and Letter of Information 421

I watched as the spry elderly White gentlemen entered the reception room of Montford Point Marines. He was the only White person among the group of African American men.  Who was this man, I wondered aloud. The man with the thick silver hair interacted with the Montford Point Marines with ease. I knew it was not a politician seeking a photo op.

 For several days, my father and other Montford Marines were greeted warmly by members of Congress;  speaker of the House John Boehner was even moved to tears in his speech. Although suited up, the White octogenarian clearly was not a legislator.

"He is a Montford Point Marine. He was one of the officers," the person sitting next to me announced. It then dawned on me-- White Officers were used to train Montford Point Marine recruits. When the boot camp was established in 1942, obviously there were no Black Officers.  They had to be found from the Army or Navy or quickly trained by current officers. So Montford Point Marines also includes White Americans, a fact that I have omitted in my posts. It is important to include all Montford Point Marines and not exclude any from the history.

Source: uncw.edu
An Officer inspects a rifle.

According to "The Right to Fight: African Americans in the Marines," Colonel Samuel Woods was selected to command Camp Montford Point. Colonel Woods had to "start from scratch with no cadre of experienced African Americans except for a handful with prior service in the Army or Navy." Below is a list of ten facts about Camp Montford Point from "The Right to Fight."

Ten Facts About Camp Montford Point

1.  Colonel Samuel Woods was in charge of Montford Point, New River, North Carolina
2.  Woods also commanded, the 51st Defense Battalion Composite, the first World War II African  American Combat Unit
3.  Lieutenant Colonel Theodore A Holdahn was in charge of recruit training.
4.  Montford Point included two dozen White Officers.
5.  90 White Enlisted Marines were known as the Special Enlisted Staff. They included clerks, typists and drill instructors.
6. Special Enlisted Staff were vetted to exclude anyone opposed to the presence of Blacks in the ranks.
7. The Marines were to replace the Special Enlisted Staff with Black non-commissioned officers as  soon as possible. This was done by testing and personal observation.
8.  First Promotions to Private First Class took place in November 1942 for Blacks.
9.  Secretary of the Navy Knox authorized a Marine Messman Branch and the first of 63 combat  support companies (Depot/Ammunition).
10.  52 Defense Battalion established.

Source: montfordpointmarineassociation.com
Drill Instructor Elmer Bowen
He received positive reviews from recruits.

Over 20,000 African American men trained to become Marines at Montford Point. The segregated training facility was located in New River, North Carolina. A road separated their boot camp from Camp Lejeune and African American Marines were not permitted to venture into Camp Lejeune unless accompanied by a White Officer. Black Montford Point Marines "could not eat unless their White counterparts were finished with their meal."* Apparently, Southern conventions and military protocols still maintained the separation of races.


Also, it is vital to note that:

General Holcomb in March 1943 issued Letter of Information 421, which declared it "essential that in no case shall there be colored noncommissioned officers senior to white men in the same unit, and desirable that few, if any, be of the same rank." LOI 421 was a classified document and did not become public during the war. (The Right To Fight)

Moreover, White Officers, in charge of training Black recruits were selected based on previous military experience in working with Asians or Latinos in previous military campaigns. "The Right to Fight" reports that White officers could not harbor any resentment towards Blacks serving in the Corps. This would have been detrimental for cohesiveness as a unit and undermine the program. Under direction from Colonel Samuel Woods, White Officers and Special Enlisted Staff  insured that Montford Point Marines received optimal instruction. The White Officers were then replaced by Black non-commissioned officers. Therefore, when speaking of the Montford Point Marines, White Officers and Special Enlisted Staff must be included. Their stories need to be told as well.

Were you aware of the story of the White Officers and Special Enlisted Staff? What about classified document LOI 421?

 Don't forget to share and become a follower!

Source: uncw.edu
An officer assists a member of the 51st

Sources:
*al.com
The Right to Fight
uncw.edu

William Scott: African American Photographer of the Holocaust

My last post discussed the Office of War Information and how photographer Roger Smith captured iconic images of Montford Point Marines. His pictures displayed young, agile African American men training at boot camp at Montford Point, New River, NC. The pictures were groundbreaking because the United States Marine Corps finally permitted Negros to join their ranks. The two century long ban was lifted.

There was no mention of discrimination or any of the difficulties the enlistees might have endured. The propaganda policy of the Office of War made sure of that. I recently showed my father some Montford Point Marines pictures on the Internet. "You never told me you went to chapel," I teased. "Maybe I'm in some of those pictures, " he offered. "I'll see if I can print them out for you." I announced.

An article from the Detroit Free Press depicted members of the Montford Point Marines Association with actual prints from a special exhibit of Roger Smith photos. The elderly gentlemen were excited about seeing the images, and talked about marching around the Montford Point tower in the hot North Carolina sun. They jokingly shared how mean drill instructor Sargent Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson was and how he had to be tough in order to make men out of them.

Roger Smith's photographs of valiant Montford Point Marines undoubtedly inspired young African American men to enlist and fight for the cause. Of course, as many Montford Point Marines can attest, some racists resented them in Marine uniforms. One Black Marine was even arrested for impersonating a Marine, according to Military.com.* Roger Smith's photos proudly represented the Montford Point Marines at their best. 

 Smith had a contemporary by the name of William Alexander Scott III. William Scott also took photographs during World War II and happened to be African American. His family owned the Atlanta Daily World, an African American newspaper. Scott was drafted into the Army while a student at Morehouse College. William Scott is famous for shooting photographs of liberators of concentration camps and Holocaust victims.

William Scott was an African American Photographer of the Holocaust

The irony of the situation can not be overstated. Scott was a member of an oppressed group from the United States covering the Holocaust at a concentration camp. According to Professor Jerry Legge in The Dade County Sentinel, some of the laws that lead to the mass genocide of Jews began with the following:

 In the 1930s Hitler’s laws began to limit or revoke their “Germanhood.” Jews were kicked out of civil service jobs, Jewish doctors were forbidden to practice, and Jewish professors were fired from German universities.Then the Nuremberg laws of September 1935 spelled out with neat German precision what rights the Jews must forfeit. They couldn’t go to the same parks, pools or schools as “regular” Germans, and there must be no intermarriage between Jews and the Master Race. In 1939 Jews were forced into segregated ghettos. (Excerpt from speech given by Dr. Jerry Legge)

Do any of these discriminatory laws seem familiar? Note the parallels with Jim Crow laws and Nuremberg laws. William Scott's segregated Black Army unit marched with General Patton's 3rd Army. He was one of the first soldiers to enter Buchenwald. I think the best way to convey the enormity of William Scott's arrival is to read it in his own poignant words:

I took out my camera and began to take some photos, but that only lasted for a few pictures. As the scenes became more gruesome, I put my camera in its case and walked in a daze with the survivors as we viewed all forms of dismemberment of the human body. We learned that 31,000 of the 51,000 persons there had been killed in a two-week period prior to our arrival. An SS trooper had remained until the day of our arrival; survivors had captured him. As he tried to flee over a fence, he was taken into a building, and two men from my unit followed. They said he was trampled to death by the survivors.I began to realize why few, if any, people would believe the atrocities I had seen. HOLOCAUST was the word used to describe it, but one has to witness it to even begin to believe it. And finally, after going through several buildings with various displays — lampshades of human skin, incinerators choked with human bones, dissected heads and bodies, testes in labeled bottles, so that they could be seen by the victims on a shelf by the door as they went in and out of the barracks (after two weeks of this procedure, they would be killed, but we arrived before this ritual could be continued) — my mind closed the door on this horror.- Atlanta Daily World, April 22, 2013

Photos below: USHMM.org**

USHMM.org
Deceased bodies of Holocaust victims.

Roger Smith and William Scott were two notable World War II photographers who documented World War II and left an indelible impression on viewers. Smith was a civilian employed by the Office of War Information. His pictures provided permanent visuals of the patriotism and the inclusion of all Americans.

 William Scott served in the Army and his first hand account showed us the horrors and the inhumanity of a war machine gone mad. Scott's Holocaust images are stark reminders that genocide and discrimination must not exist. Both photographers gave us a close look at the military and war in ways that the world will never forget.

 Source:  Augusta Chronicle
Witness to the Holocaust Exhibit, Georgia

What are your feelings when you see some of these photos? 


Please share! Follow the Montford Point Marines and Honor Blogspot on Pinterest for more photos!

Sources: Augusta Chronicle
Atlanta Daily World
Chess Drum
Dade County Sentinel
Detroit Free Press
 Military.com*
USHMM.org
Witness to the Holocaust



Notes:** "American troops, including African American soldiers from the Headquarters and Service Company of the 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion, 8th Corps, US 3rd Army, view corpses stacked behind the crematorium during an inspection tour of the Buchenwald concentration camp. Among those pictured is Leon Bass (the soldier third from left). Buchenwald, Germany, April 17, 1945."  From United States Holocaust Memorial Museum




See Also:

Alfred Masters Becomes The First Black Marine Inducted Into The Armed Service
Photographer Roger Smith Captured Iconic Images of Montford Point Marines




Video:
Oral History Interview with William Scott

David Dinkins: Montford Point Marine and Former Mayor of New York

"Let's here it for New York....." the chorus to the Jay Z's "Empire State of Mind" mega hit begins. But an older generation might prefer Frank Sinatra's tribute of "New York, New York." I included these popular songs because a former mayor of the "Big Apple" was a Montford Point Marine. He is the honorable David N. Dinkins, who was elected the first African American mayor of New York City. New York is a world class financial, fashion, cultural, and entertainment center. David Dinkins is 86 years old, and currently a Public Affairs Professor at Columbia University. His policies as mayor has had a lasting impact for the city. This Montford Point Marine describes New York City, a population of over eight million, as a "Gorgeous Mosaic" of ethnicities. New York's population ranks among the top three of the United States, according to the United States 2012 census. Interestingly enough, he became a Montford Point Marine the same way he became mayor: Methodically and with persistence.

image via: nycgo.com

David Dinkins was born in Trenton, New Jersey on July 10, 1927. His parents separated when he was a young boy and his mother moved to Harlem, NY and worked as a domestic. The elder Dinkins later remarried and returned to Trenton where David graduated high school. Essentially, his reason for joining the Marines was his desire to remain alive. He was seventeen years old in 1945 and young men from his neighborhood were rapidly becoming fatalities of World War II. David Dinkins decided to take his destiny into his own hands by taking proactive measures:

And I figured a way to stay alive is to be well trained is to be a Marine. And so I tried to enlist in the Marine Corps. Well, the idea is you have to enlist before you get drafted, because once you're drafted, they tell you where you're going. You say you want Navy, they give you Army. (Uncw.edu)

Source: usata.com

Life As A Marine


 Unlike men who might have shot themselves in the foot to get out of the service, David Dinkins embarked on a mission. He was so determined to become a Marine that he went to sign up in Camden, Philadelphia, Jersey City, Newark, and New York and each time was told that the quota for Negro soldiers was reached. Shortly thereafter, a physical exam revealed that Dinkins had high blood pressure.* This condition would have exempted him from the military but Dinkins remained steadfast. His blood pressure later was normal. Meanwhile a letter was written to the draft board stating if Dinkins passes the exam to place him in the Marines. On July 10, 1945, he turned eighteen. David registered for the draft and requested immediate induction. A little over a week later he was called. (Uncw.edu) 

The transcript from University of North Carolina provided a glimpse of boot camp life at Montford Point, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The DIs or drill instructors were tough-- he found out the hard way during his first encounter when he was struck by one. Despite the tough training, the scrawny Dinkins was accepting of it because it meant he had to "toe the line." Again, Dinkins signed up because he wanted to remain alive. He was not looking for a way out of the Corps.

Private David Dinkins remained stateside and was a driver at the base, leaving at 4am under cover of darkness. Dinkins was an ambulance driver, and sprayed DDT** according to the taped interview. He also was an assistant file clerk, since he was proven to be very efficient in the office. When it was time to reenlist he decided not to, and enrolled at Howard University in Washington, D.C. upon the urging of his stepmother, an alum. At first he was not very serious with his studies, as he wanted "to party." David Dinkins then became serious and majored in Mathematics, graduating with honors in 1950. He met the smartest girl in his graduate school math class, Joyce Burrows, who later became his wife. Joyce was the daughter of a New York state assemblymen, which led to Dinkins becoming involved in politics.(Uncw.edu, wikipedia)

Source: huffingtonpost.com
David Dinkins while in office.

Life As A Politician


After Howard, Dinkins attended, Rutgers for a fellowship in math and then switched to Brooklyn Law School. He graduated in 1956 and started his own firm. Next, he began his ascent into New York City politics by acquiring access to the inner workings of the political machine, economic clout, and a thick skin. David Dinkins:

Became part of an influential group of African American politicians that included Denny Farrell, Percy Sutton, Basil Patterson, and Charles Rangel, the later three together with Dinkins were known as the "Gang of Four".

Also, New York Daily News reported that Dinkins was one of fifty African American investors who helped the late Percy Sutton*** establish the Inner City Broadcasting Corporation in 1971. Inner City Broadcasting Corporation owned the top ranked urban radio station WBLS and saved the famed Apollo Theater from bankruptcy in 1981.

David Dinkins was President of the Board of Elections from 1972-1973, City Clerk 1975-1985 and Manhattan Borough President in 1985. He was elected the 106th mayor of New York City on November 7, 1989, defeating three term mayor Ed Koch, two other democrat candidates and Rudy Giuliani. He was not elected for another term. Many sources cite the handling of the three day long Crown Heights Riots in 1991, the perception of Dinkins being ineffectual with the crime rate, ethnic tensions, and high voter turn out from the borough of Staten Islandv as factors in contributing to his loss. In Dinkin's memoir, released in 2013 called A Mayor's Life: Governing New York's Gorgeous Mosaic, he candidly talks about his defeat and contributions. (columbia.edu, wikipedia)




New York Faced Special Challenges


New York City in the late 80s and early 90s, like many of America's urban cities, faced many special challenges. A recession, unemployment, gangs, crime, the introduction of the crack epidemic and AIDS wreaked havoc on the residents. Many of my readers might remember when New York overall was deemed a dangerous place filled with urban blight. There was racial discord and violence. Films of the era such as New Jack City and Do the Right Thing, come to mind.


The New York Times in 2009 wrote about David Dinkins achievements as mayor. Highlights include:

• Decreased the New York City crime rate more than any other time in history. This was done by increasing the size of the New York Police Department and the hiring of Raymond W. Kelley as police commissioner. 
• Instituted Beacon Community Centers that provided a wide range of services.
• Revitalized a once decaying Times Square and negotiated with Walt Disney Corporation to repair an old 42nd Street theater.
•  Established significant rehabilitation of dilapidated housing in Harlem, South Bronx and Brooklyn despite budget constraints
• Procured a 99 year lease from the United States Tennis Association for New York City, cited as the best athletic stadium deal in the country.
• Enacted policies and actions that reduced the homeless population to its lowest point in 20 years.

David Dinkins also is involved in countless social organizations such as 100 Black Men, Alpha Phi Alpha, Inc., and serves on numerous boards. The Columbia University website lists his implementation of "Safe Streets, Safe City: Cops and Kids" crime reduction program for children in addition to involvement in various municipal leadership organizations.


So there you have an achievement packed life of one Montford Point Marine. David Dinkins decided to be proactive about his military career as a teenager to insure that he did not to become a casualty. He took steps to enlist as a Marine, because he knew that he would receive the best training out of all the Armed forces. He did not give up after five USMC recruitment offices said "No, we reached our Negro quota." Higher ups noting his persistence wrote a letter insisting that he be allowed to become a Marine.

The Congressional award winning Montford Point Marine then later served as an politician for one of the most important cities in the world. Dinkins described New York as a city with the "Gorgeous Mosaic" of people. He established ground-breaking policies for millions of residents and was in office with the largest crime drop in New York City history. Since then, the appealing luster of The Big Apple from a golden era has been restored. More individuals are apt to sing the metropolis' praises in a song, like the two I included in the introductory paragraph.

David Dinkins was able to achieve two important goals in his life; becoming one of the first Black Marines and the first Black mayor of New York City.



Would you have been as persistent as Dinkins in becoming a Marine during WWII?  Have you ever visited or lived in New York in the 1990s? What about today?

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                                          visionaryproject.org







See also:

They Don't Tell You Where You're Going




Sources:

columbia.edu
www3.istat.it
newyorkdailynews.com
nytimes.com
takeaway.org
uncw.edu
visionaryproject.org
wikipedia.com



Notes: *high blood pressure- Incidence of high blood pressure for US Blacks is 41% due to genetics, environmental and social factors. Source: webmd.com


**DDT-pesticide



***Percy Sutton- Also a Congressional Medal Recipient. Sutton was an intelligence officer and an aviation cadet with the Tuskegee Airmen. Sutton, an attorney, provided legal representation for Malcolm X.  Profiled at visionaryproject.org

The Passing of A Hartford Legend: Walter "Doc" Hurley

I was in the final stages of locating photos and creating an outline on one of the most famous Montford Marines when something appeared across my feed in a social media account. It was a tribute drawing from Bob Englehart, a political cartoonist from the Hartford Courant. The illustration read "Doc Hurley." I immediately was touched because my father used to play cards with Coach Walter "Doc" Hurley. Just last year we drove down Hurley's former street and my father pointed out the Tudor house that overlooked Keney Park. I discussed Doc Hurley's passing with my father and he reiterated how his late older brother Jay used to play football as an undergrad against Hurley on an opposing HBCU team. Both men were extremely tall and a long lasting friendship occurred between two giants whose statures alone did not define them. My late Uncle Jay would see Doc Hurley when he came to visit us in Connecticut.

"I didn't know he was a Marine," I said. Dozens of news sources plus a book stated he served in the Pacific during the 1940s as a Marine. As this blog's loyal readers already know, that would automatically make him a Montford Point Marine, since Montford Point was where all African American Marines were trained at the Camp Lejeune facility prior to desegregation. Thus, with supporting documentation, Doc Hurley should receive a Medal of Honor posthumously.

Source: Hartford Courant

Walter "Doc" Hurley- 1922-2014

Walter "Doc" Hurley was an educator, school administer and basketball coach. He was born in Albany, Georgia and moved to Hartford, CT where he was a four sport star athlete. Hurley graduated from Weaver High School in 1941 and served in the Marines. He attended Virginia State University and spent his summers in Hartford as a supervisor in a parks and recreation program. Hurley was a towering, commanding man with the "intense stare" and booming voice. Some of his young men that Hurley coached even made it to the NBA; they later reflected in a 2006 article from the Hartford Courant on the influence that Doc Hurley had:

In those days you didn't call them mentor, but that's what he was. He was the largest person I had ever seen. He was larger than life to me, and in a way still is."

Hurley played Professional football in the 1940s with the All American Football Conference Brooklyn Dodgers. He was a winning high school track and football coach and a noted basketball official in Virginia. He also began his teaching career there. Despite Hurley's successful reputation, when there was a basketball coach vacancy at Hurley's alma mata, Weaver High School, Hurley was passed over. Hartford simply was not ready for a Black coach at the time. Even today, headlines are still made when an African American is made a collegiate or professional sports coach. Said Hurley, "it stung" and according to the article Hurley "never got over it." (Hartford Courant)

Doc Hurley in 1940
Image via wfsb.com

It was Doc Hurley that calmed some 500 Weaver High School students down on April 4, 1968, when Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated. Doc Hurley wasn't a teacher at Weaver, but he was summoned from his physical education job at an elementary school to prevent frustrated students from protesting. Hurley arrived and gathered the football team, since he knew many of them as kids by name, along with leaders of street gangs to diffuse the potentially violent situation. His quick-thinking paid off as Weaver High School remained unscathed while Hartford's North End was ravaged by riots for months. He asked the question, "Where are you going to get educated if you burn down the school?" Now that's power. (Hartford Courant)

The educator went on to become an assistant principal at Weaver High School and set up the Doc Hurley Basketball Tournament in 1975. Over a half million dollars in college scholarships have been given out over the years with the criteria based on academics, an essay and financial need.

"There are hundreds of people from throughout the Hartford area whose lives were transformed because of the higher education opportunities that Doc Hurley brought to their lives over the past several decades," Gov. Dannel P. Malloy said Monday. "He was one of the most passionate voices for Hartford and its residents, respected by all, and brought such positive energy to generations of residents. He truly is a Hartford legend and is proof that one person can make a lasting, positive impact." Hartford Courant

Unfortunately, great things can become temporarily tarnished. State officials allege that his daughter misused college funds for her own personal use. A new scholarship fund has been established through the Hartford Foundation for Public Giving, called the Walter Doc Hurley Scholarship Fund for Greater Hartford. Flags were flown at half mast under the direction of Hartford Mayor Pedro Segarra, and the girls and boys Weaver High School Baskeball teams are dedicating the rest of their season in Doc Hurley's honor. They will be wearing jerseys with Doc Hurley's name on them. (Hartford Courant)


 And how did Walter Doc Hurley get the moniker "Doc?" His father wanted him to grow up to become a doctor so that he could be successful. I think this Marine did remarkably well, don't you? Do you know any educators like him? Would it be awesome to Hurley's legacy if he is honored with a Congressional Award posthumously?


Don't forget to subscribe for future posts, become a follower and share.

Hartford Courant file photo.

Sources:
FoxCT.com
Hartford Courant
Hartford.org

See Also:
A Montford Point Marine and Tuskegee Airmen in One Immediate Family
Connecticut: The Land of Steady Habits


Notes:

* Gwen Hurley, the wife of Doc Hurley, preceded her husband in death in 2005. She taught at Mark Twain Elementary for many years and also had a lasting impact on young people and the Hartford community. My friend Pat, an administrator, would speak fondly of Mrs. Hurley and her sayings.

Early Black Military Experiences: Colonial America and the Revolutionary War

White Americans have been ambivalent over the years about Black participation in military organizations and in most instances have encouraged or allowed Blacks in military activities only when forced by circumstances to do so.  - shsu.edu

Across the Atlantic Ocean in Europe, defending one's city or country was the responsibility of all male citizens. Wealthy, prominent men became prestigious officers and lower class men served as regular soldiers for service overseas. Similar military practices were adapted in the New World, where settlers from Spain, France, Britain, and the Netherlands established colonies in America.

The institution of slavery was also brought to America.  A range of policies existed for militia participation of both Free Blacks and Enslaved Africans. Major milestones during the Colonial Era and Revolutionary War listed below gives us a foundation on prevailing attitudes prior to forced desegregation of the armed forces. Early Black Military Experiences included outright banning, and eventually inclusion.  Many of the heroic contributions were quickly forgotten.




Source: americanrevolution.org
Reenactment Soldier

Colonial Era

1. 1639 - the Commonwealth of Virginia enacted a bill excluding Negroes from being provided with arms or ammunition.
2. Dutch West Indian Colony of New Amsterdam (New York) armed slaves with a "tomy hawk and a half pike" to assist in fighting murderous Indians (Native Americans).
3. 1653 - Massachusetts Colony required all Negroes and Indians from sixteen to sixty years of age "inhabitants or servants", to attend Military training along with the English.
4. New England later followed Virginia in excluding Blacks from the militia. However, this led to Blacks having the same social standing as upper class men who were excluded from the militia. Blacks were then assigned laborer type tasks, such as building defensive fortifications.
5. South Carolina, on the other hand allowed for "trusty" servants to help in defending the colony in 1703.
6. Other Southern colonies did not allow for Blacks to become members of militia. There were larger populations of Blacks in the South and the power establishment feared slave mutinies and revolts.
7. North Carolina, did make an exception when it came to Indian uprisings. In these cases every able bodied man was allowed to help terminate Indian uprisings.

Revolutionary Hero Salem Poor*
Source:www.autumnnewell.com 

American Revolution (America's Independence from Britain) (1775-1783)

ARMY

1. 20% of the Colonial population of 22 million was Black.
2. April 1775 - Black Minuteman fought at Lexington and Concord.
3. May 1775 - Massachusetts adopted a resolution that no slaves be admitted into the Continental Army. 
4. July 1775 - Under General George Washington and General Horatio Gates, Continental Amy recruiting officers were not to enlist any "stroller, Negro, or vagabond."
5. November 1775 - John Murray, Royal Governor of Virginia, representing the opposing British, offered freedom to enslaved Blacks willing to bear arms against the colonists. Murray was known as the Earl of Dunmore or Lord Dunmore.
6. December 1775 - 300 Blacks joined on the British side with "Liberty to Slaves" etched on their uniforms, calling themselves the "Ethiopian Regiment."
7. December 1775 - As a result of Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, Washington changed part of his policy and allowed free Blacks in the Continental Army.
8. 1777 - It was reported that some slaves substituted for their masters despite the policy barring slaves.
9. 1778 - Washington's Continental Army integrated a number of African Americans. There was also an all Black battalion from Rhode Island and Black companies from Connecticut and Boston, called the Colonials and Bucks of America.
10. 5,000 Black Soldiers fought in the 300,000 Continental Army

NAVY

 1775 -  Several states paid bonuses to Black crew members and granted freedom. In short, the Continental Navy did not bar Blacks. The Navy was supplemented by individual state and private funding. Ship crews were integrated and Black crew members came with prior maritime experience. (It was reported that some made it up the ranks of pilots; pilots are responsible for navigating a ship through narrow or congested waterways.)

Secretary of War James McHenry
Established Policy Banning Negroes in the Marines.
Source: wikipedia.org

MARINES

1. A dozen or more African Americans served in the Marines.
2. First African American to fight as a Marine was John Martin (Keto). He was enlisted without his Delaware slave owner's permission and saw combat on the USS Reprisal. He was at sea for a year and a half and perished when his ship sank in October, 1777.

MARINES RE-INSTITUTED

***1798 - Marines re-instituted. Secretary of War James McHenry proclaimed, "No Negro, mulatto, or Indian to be enlisted." Following British protocol, the United States Marine Corps enacted a policy which "set a higher standard of unit cohesion for Marines so that they would remain loyal, maintain shipboard discipline and help put down mutinies."

The Marines did not change their long standing policy until 1942, when Howard P. Perry became their first African American recruit and launched the history of the Montford Point Marines. Protests, letters to Congress, and the Axis Powers' machinations of World War II, led to the signing of Executive Order 8802. It ended discrimination in the National Defense Industry. No longer could Blacks be prevented from enlisting in the United States Marine Corps.

Throughout history it has been shown that Black participation in military service has been met with reservations. Reasons given include fear of slave revolts and mutinies, not wanting African Americans to ascend the socio-economic ladder, and the belief that Blacks were not intelligent enough to fight in combat situations. In reality, since the American Revolutionary War, Blacks had received high marks and praise from their commanding officers and demonstrated bravery. It is indeed unfortunate that Blacks were able to participate in military service only after military organizations were forced to allow them. So little faith was behind the Montford Point Marines in the 1940s that these soldiers were considered an experiment, and they were sent to outlying regions of the Pacific.

Early Black Military Experiences demonstrate the willingness for men, who in some cases, did not have their freedom, but were ready to fight. The Colonial Era and the Revolutionary War provided a preview of what Blacks in combat could achieve.

Source: www.forloveofliberty.org

Notes:  * Despite Salem Poor's surname, he was able to purchase his freedom as a slave with a year's salary in 1769. Salem Poor was sent to build a fort in Bunker Hill during the Revolutionary War. He killed British Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie in Charlestown, MA during combat. The Battle of Bunker Hill had approximately 1,000 African American casualties. 14 American Officers sent a petition to the Massachusetts legislature, proclaiming that Poor "Behaved like an experienced officer as well as an excellent soldier." Salem Poor was featured on an American Postal Stamp two centuries later. From www.fold3.com

In 1736, Blacks served as officers in a military unit to defeat the Natchez Indians in Mobile, Alabama.  This marked the first time Negroes were officers.


Sources: shsu.edu

Executive Order 8802 Bans Discrimination In the National Defense Industry

On June 25, 1941 months before Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802. Executive Order 8802 banned discrimination in the National Defense Industry. The President's official statement accompanying the bill was as follows: "The democratic way of life within the nation can be defended successfully only with the help and support of all groups." Roosevelt was prompted into signing this law by his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, a tireless champion for Black advancement. His decision was also spurred by civil rights activists such as A. Phillip Randolph.  Randolph had threatened a March on Washington.


Consequently, the United States Marine Corps could no longer prohibit Blacks from joining their ranks. Blacks since the Civil War had been recruited to join the Army and the Navy, but were excluded by the Marines. The 100 plus year policy of exclusion of Blacks was now mandated to change after FDR's signing of Executive Order 8802.

Howard P. Perry, First Black Marine Recruit
Source: archives.gov

The first Black recruit was Howard P. Perry of Charlotte, North Carolina. He arrived to Montford Point on August 26, 1942, and in September he and 119 other privates began the arduous process of becoming Marines.  - National gov. archives

These Marines were assigned "special housing" at Montford Point. They were not allowed to go to Camp Lejeune unless they were accompanied by a White Marine. Reported Montford Point Marine, Thomas S. Turner, "they didn't want us in there to begin with. They referred us as "you people" as if we were some type of animals. It was rough, but we survived."  -phillytrib.com

Executive Order 8802 enabled African Americans such as my father to obtain employment in defense factories.* Thousands of Blacks were able to work in defense factories and help our nation at war. Dad was then encouraged to become a Montford Point Marine by James Huger, who worked for the War Department. Furthermore, Blacks could then procure middle class life styles. Executive Order 8802 became an impetus to desegregate other institutions in the future.

In essence, the contributions of all Americans were needed in the war effort. Months before Pearl Harbor and the United State's entry into World War II, policy makers believed that the contributions of African Americans were necessary. The Montford Point Marines were a result of Executive Order 8802. It essentially banned discrimination in the National Defense Industry. But we know that the Montford Point Marines were in fact, discriminated, since their training facility was segregated and their treatment received was less than honorable.

Source: Airspace.si.edu

Notes: Executive Order 8802 did not extend to Japanese Americans; many were placed in internment camps during WWII.


Sources: lejeuene.marines.mil,www.phillytrib.com,www.veteransunited.com

* See Previous Related Posts:

The Person Who Influenced Dad's Decision to Become a Marine
Dad's Arrival in Connecticut

Dad and Enemy Planes

 I asked dad how the 90 mm anti-aircraft was operated. It was the weapon that dad was assigned in the Marshall Islands during World War II. My father stated that four men were needed to use the 90 mm. He was seated on the right side and was responsible for turning the machine to the left. The movement of the weapon began when corresponding bulbs were matched. The bulbs indicated that the approaching enemy plane had reached a certain altitude or height. The Battery Sargent would give a signal and then, reported my dad, the plane would burst, after entering gun fire.




Members of the 51st receiving training at Montford Point.
Source: ibiblio.org

"Were you scared, Dad?" I asked, knowing the of history of Japanese fighter pilots. It was said that German soldiers were told to kill, but Japanese soldiers were told to die.

"Hell nawl," my Dad quickly replied. "We ain't see nothing, you're looking into a scope, you just saw dots. We shot at Mitsubishi planes."

Dad was twenty years old at this time. He was the same age if not older than many of the Japanese pilots that were members of the Japanese Navy and Army.

But these Japanese pilots by World War II's end were trained to do one thing--fly Mitsubishi A6M2 planes nicknamed the "Zero" and the "Personal Flying Coffin" into targets. As the word coffin implies, these were Suicide Missions.

In previous posts I talked about what events and people caused my father to join a segregated branch of the armed forces, that initially did not want Negroes. Now it is time to discuss the reasoning behind a Japanese man for joining their Imperial military.

A sign post in the Marshall Islands. Dad's two islands are on the bottom, left.
Source: ibiblio.org

                                                                       

How The Negro Press Demanded Answers On The "Lost Battalion"

Upon finishing boot camp at Montford Point, Camp LeJeune, North Carolina, my father was very excited.  As a member of the 51st Defense Battalion, this unit had to prove that they were capable soldiers in combat. They would reverse the findings of the military report that cited that Negros were incompetent in battle. It was thirty long years since the 92nd Division's performance during World War I (1914-1918) that unfairly influenced military policy. Sentiments and beliefs systems were slowly starting to change for World War II.

Dad took a train from North Carolina to San Diego, California via the southern route of the United States. The year was 1943. San Diego, CA was the location of the Marines Corps military base. Of course, his battalion traveled Jim Crow style, which meant uniformed men of color in segregated train cars located at the rear of the train. Smoke and dust permeated the air of the rear train car; this was also where coal was placed into the engine.

Dad recounted how they stopped every four hours to exercise while on route to San Diego. Lunch was brought outside, because the colored men were not permitted to eat inside railroad dining cars. The white officers of the 51st Battalion, however ate inside the dining cars. Captured German prisoners of war traveled with better amenities and treatment than the Montford Point Marines. Meanwhile, the Colored enlisted men socialized with each other and developed a camaraderie. I will write more on the preferential treatment that Axis POWs received over African Americans in the future.

Source:123rf.com
Vintage Map of San Diego

When dad arrived in San Diego, CA, the 51st Defense Battalion were not immediately deployed. The military leaders were not exactly sure what to do with the men. Additionally, Dad had no idea where in the Pacific or when he was going to be shipped out during World War II. World War II contained two theatres of war: The Pacific and The European.

 The Allies consisted of the following countries: France, Britain, United States, and the Soviet Union. Allied countries were opposed by The Axis Powers. The Axis Powers were a military and political alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan. The Axis powers desired dominance in their respective area of Europe, Mediterranean and the Pacific. They promised not to intervene in each other's objectives and to stop the spread of Communism. Minor Axis countries were Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Croatia and Slovakia. Collaborators for the Axis Powers were Vichy France, and Neutral but aiding the Axis was Spain. Italy ended up changing alliances.*

Source: www.regentsprep.org

Source:www.slideshare.net

 Of course, Americans at this time despised the Japanese for their attack at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in the early morning hours of December 1941.
Headlines of this day were not very flattering and used derogatory terms. 

The leader of Nazi Germany was Adolph Hitler, who sanctioned hatred towards Jews, Catholics, Blacks, Jehovah Witnesses, etc. German propaganda at the time sanctioned the ideal of the "Master" Aryan Race which consisted of blond, blue eyed prototypes. Aryans were supposedly superior to all races and ethnicities. Adolph Hitler convinced the majority of his German people that the "Final Solution" would be in the best interests of the German Empire. "The Final Solution" was the horrific extermination of all Jews who Hitler believed to be the enemy.  Countries were invaded by the Axis Powers all around the world. So unsurprisingly, the 51st Defense Battalion were ready to go into battle against the Axis powers.

Montford Point Marines were given extensive praise during training. Dad still remembers seeing Sgt. Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson (1905-1972) and vividly describes the patches for service that decorated his uniform. "Hashmark" Johnson was so named because he served with honor in the US Army, Navy AND Marines. Johnson was one of the first Black Marines and a drill instructor.  Obviously he was a formidable man with a strong presence. Dad always speaks about Hashmark Johnson with awe in his voice.

Source: www.montfordpointmarines.com
Sgt Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson

"Man, we partied so hard,"  Dad exclaimed about his early days in San Diego.  "We went down to Tijuana, Mexico because it was so close to San Diego over the border. There were 35 cent tequilas, and we were having a good old time! Until the Pittsburgh Courier wrote an article asking about the whereabouts of the "Lost Battalion". The Pittsburgh Courier was a preeminent Negro newspaper that had a large readership across America. All of Black America was watching, and the story made big news during 1943.

Source: Blackusa.com

The story of the  "Lost Battalion" was important in many ways. Negro Athlete Jesse Owens triumphantly took home four gold medals in track events at the 1936 Berlin Summer Olympics in Hitler's Germany.  Similarly, the 51st Defense Battalion represented an important chapter in American History. The Negro were marginalized within American society through institutionalized racism. Black combat soldiers were ready to prevail against discrimination whether stateside, or anywhere in the world. The Pittsburgh Courier raised questions and demanded answers. Where was the 51st Defense Battalion and why were they missing in action?

Source: www.biography.com
Jesse Owens 

51st Defense Battalion member Clifford Primus' party days would be soon coming to an end.

*Source: www.ushmm.org

The Impact of The Negative Campaign Against the 92nd Division

Sometimes people want other people to fail. It is a simple as that. Negative campaigns are created to disseminate misinformation, ill-will, and can create major damage. Lies are told repeatedly and so often that the slanderers spewing the misinformation actually start believing the lies. The lies can damage an individual's or a group's reputation, and can place them in a dangerous situation.

The reason some individuals begin their negative campaign are many:  Financial gain, hatred, jealousy, retribution, power-- the list can be endless. Moreover, propaganda and rumor-mills are launched in order to cause confusion and division of loyalty. In modern society, people yearn for power and go to great lengths to achieve it because of its intoxicating effects. The group that is ostracized is tragically rendered powerless and treated as pariahs. However, negative campaigns can be terminated, reversed and eventually, the ultimate truth is revealed.

The culture of calumny does not end overnight. It starts with the courage of one to protest and to challenge. In a previous post I discussed how in World War I the French government awarded African American Soldiers Medal of Honor Awards ( Croix de Guerre) and not the American government.  I described at length the "Harlem Hellfighters", the relentlessly fierce American Army division (93rd) that fought in Europe. Sadly, one regiment was the scapegoat for Negros being viewed as not suitable in combat.

Source: www.goodreads.com

The 92nd division had a horrendous experience in World War I. The 92nd consisted of draftees and included four infantry regiments, three field artillery regiments, a trench mortar battery and three machine gun battalions, a general battalion, an engineer regiment. They received their training at Camp Funston at Fort Riley, Kansas at a segregated facility. The soldiers had a racial incident in their town and were unfairly admonished by their leader, General Robert Bullard, who dispatched  a scathing memo. The memo stated that, "White men made the division, and white men can break it easily if it became a troublemaker".* The 92nd were then sent overseas to France, where they were thrown into battle without an opportunity to develop camaraderie and little training with the French. The 92nd was unfamiliar with the terrain and under- equipped.

Consequently, the 92nd's 368th Infantry regiment did not do well during the Allied Meuse Argonne Offensive in September 1918. The 92rd suffered heavy casualties as a result of a deliberate lack of support. Scoffed their commander General Robert L. Bullard," If you need combat soldiers, and especially if you need them in a hurry, don't put your time upon Negroes." (Quoted by Ulysses Lee, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Employment of Negro Troops. Washington: United States Government Printing Office 1966, p. 20.)

The 92nd Division dubbed themselves "The Buffalo Soldiers" in tribute to the famed Cavalries of the same name. The Buffalo Soldiers were brave African Americans Army soldiers that fought during the Spanish American War, patrolled National Parks, and secured the western frontier. German soldiers, on the other hand, referred to them as "Black Devils" (Schwartzer Teufel) and instituted their own negative campaign against the men. In battle, fliers in perfect English were launched airborne decrying that Negro soldiers should not fight for the English, French and especially America. It lambasted the African Americans in assisting a country that was allegedly "fighting for profit" and discriminated against Blacks. The 92nd were the subject of adverse campaigns from the Germans as well!

The 92nd Division had arrived in France during the latter stages of the war. It was their lot to be assigned the most active and well defended sectors of the front. As a result, the causalities were relatively high for the short period of combat. (www.portraitsinblack.com/buffalosoldiersfirstwar.html)

Members of the 92nd Division were also discredited by claims that they were rapists. Some were removed from their Division on trumped up charges and even court martialed. It took years for the charges to be cleared and the men exonerated.. (exhibitions.nypl.org/africanage/essay-world-war-i-html)



So a formal military policy for the next thirty years undermined Negro soldiers in combat as a result of a mere five days of fighting. Accounts were taken from biased Army officials, ignoring any victories,decorations, and barring testimony from Negro soldiers. The information was submitted to The War Department and the Army War College. (https:armyhistoryorg/09/fighting-for-respect-african-american-soldiers-in-world-war-1/)

Source: www.wolfsonian.org
Early positive WWI Recruitment Poster

The idea of Black soldiers and officers as failures festered postwar and until courageous Black leaders approached the United States Government. Journalists of course, were also instrumental in changing the status quo. When the United States entered World War War in 1941, men of all races and both genders were needed to help defeat the Axis Powers. I bring up the 92nd Division, and negative campaigns for a reason--  my father, a member of a the first World War II combat division, the 51st Battalion, was in a holding pattern. Dad had completed grueling boot camp at Montford Point, Camp LeJeune, NC, yet the 51st Battalion were not sent overseas initially. In fact, when I asked my father about this time period, he tells an interesting story...





Notes: *www.militaryheadgear.com/articles/10-American-WWI. "Segregation Policy and the Birth of the Blue Helmet."

The French decorated the 92nd's entire 1st Battalion of the 367th Infantry and awarded the Croix de Guerre. Other Black officers and enlisted men received the Distinguished Service Cross.

Glossary:
Cavalry-army component mounted on horseback
Infantry-is the branch of an army who fight on foot

WWI Army Organizational Chart and Fighting Abroad

I compiled a listing for readers to have a better framework in understanding exactly how soldiers were organized in World War I. These terms are used extensively in describing military units.




Army Organizational Chart, World War I
Squad/Section: 9 to 10 soldiers
Platoon: 16 to 44 soldiers
Company/Battery /Troop: 62 to 190 soldiers
Battalion/Squadron: 300-1,000 soldiers
Brigade/Regiment/Group: 3,000-5,000 Soldiers
Division: 10,000-15,000 soldiers
Corps: 20,000-45,000 soldiers
Army: 50,000+ Soldiers

Source: DA Pamphlet 10-1

Source:storiesofusa.com

                                          Excerpt From "For The Love of Liberty" Documentary

Despite the countless heroic efforts displayed by African American soldiers in defeating the Central Powers, a pernicious campaign was launched to discredit them. This animosity was one of the many reasons that prevented Blacks in participating in combat units. It was not until World War II (1941-1945) that Blacks were given the opportunity to prove themselves. Hence, "For the Love of Liberty" is an appropriate title for the documentary on African Americans in the military. My father Clifford Primus would later make history as a member of the 51st Battalion, as a Montford Point Marine.
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